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The Kingdom of the Franks (), also known as the Frankish Kingdom or Francia, was the largest post-Roman kingdom in Western Europe. It was established by the Franks, one of the Germanic peoples. Its founder was King Clovis I who united Frankish tribes and expanded the Frankish realm into the Roman Gaul. During the Early Middle Ages, the kingdom was ruled by the Merovingian and Carolingian dynasties. In 800, it evolved into the Carolingian Empire, thus becoming the longest lasting Germanic kingdom from the era of Migration Period.
Originally, the core Frankish territories inside the former Western Roman Empire were located close to the Rhine and Meuse rivers in the north, but Frankish chiefs such as Chlodio expanded their influence within Roman territory as far as the Somme river in the 5th century.
Childeric I, a Salian Franks Frankish king, was one of several military leaders commanding Roman forces of various ethnic affiliations in the northern territory. His son Clovis I succeeded in unifying most of Gaul under his rule by notably conquering Soissons in 486 and Aquitaine in 507, as well as establishing leadership over all the Frankish kingdoms on or near the Rhine frontier; thus founding what became the Merovingian dynasty. The dynasty subsequently gained control over a significant part of what is now western and southern Germany. It was by building upon the basis of these Merovingian deeds that the subsequent Carolingian dynasty—through the nearly continuous campaigns of Pepin of Herstal, his son Charles Martel, grandson Pepin the Short, and great-grandson Charlemagne—secured the greatest expansion of the Frankish state by the early 9th century. Charlemagne was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 800, thus creating the Frankish-Roman Empire, also referred to as the Carolingian Empire.
Francia was one large polity, generally subdivided into several smaller kingdoms ruled by different members of the ruling dynasties. Whilst these kingdoms coordinated, they also regularly came into conflict with one another. The old Frankish lands, for example, were initially contained within the kingdom of Austrasia, centred on the Rhine and Meuse. The bulk of the Gallo-Roman territory to its south and west was called Neustria. The borders and number of these subkingdoms varied over time, until a basic split between eastern and western domains became persistent.
After various treaties and conflicts in the late 9th and early 10th centuries, West Francia came under control of the Capetian dynasty, becoming the Kingdom of France, while East Francia and Lotharingia came under the control of the Saxon Ottonian dynasty, becoming the Kingdom of Germany (which would conquer Burgundy and Italy to then form the medieval Holy Roman Empire). Competing French and German nationalisms in later centuries would claim succession from Charlemagne and the original kingdom, but nowadays both have become seen by many as pan-European symbols.
Some of the early Frankish leaders, such as Flavius Bauto and Arbogast, were committed to the cause of the Romans, but other Frankish rulers, such as Mallobaudes, were active on Roman soil for other reasons. After the fall of Arbogastes, his son Arigius succeeded in establishing a hereditary countship at Trier, and after the fall of the usurper Constantine III some Franks supported the usurper Jovinus.
Around 428 King Chlodio, whose kingdom may have been in the civitas Tungrorum (with its capital in Tongeren), launched an attack on Roman territory and extended his realm as far as Camaracum (Cambrai) and the Somme river. Though Gallic poet Sidonius Apollinaris relates that Flavius Aetius defeated a wedding party of his people around 431, this period marks the beginning of a situation that would endure for many centuries: the Germanic Franks ruled over an increasing number of Gallo-Roman subjects.
Initially settled between the Rhine and the Ardennes as Laeti, the Franks gradually spread across the territory of former Gallia Belgica. They progressively split into two groups, the Salian Franks and the Rhenish Franks, in the north of Gallia Belgica, on either side of the Rhine.
The 5thth century century began with a period of calm between the Romans and the Franks. But the pressure of the Huns coming from Asia pushed the Vandals, the Visigoths, and the Burgundians westward. With the particularly harsh winters of 405 and 406, the Rhine and the Danube were frozen, and the Barbarians could easily cross these rivers. While the Rhenish Franks plundered Trier for the first time, the Salian Franks protected the Roman provinces of Belgica and Germania. One of their chiefs, Edobich, joined the usurper Constantine III, who organized the defense against the invaders.
The Salian Franks then regrouped into a single kingdom and were ruled by Theudomer, killed around 420 by the Romans, and then by Clodio. Taking advantage of the withdrawal of Roman troops from Gaul, he led his people southward and seized Tournai and its region. However, they were stopped and defeated by Flavius Aetius, who granted them a foedus (the Salian Franks became a federated people of Rome), allowing them to settle around Tournai (Belgium). Several kings succeeded one another there, up to Clovis I, who became king in 481.
The migration of the Salian Franks, followed by the foedus granted to them, had the effect of isolating the Rhenish Franks, who then found themselves alone against the Alamanni. Between 431 and 469, they regrouped into a single kingdom and negotiated an alliance with the Burgundian kingdom. As Gundioc, king of the Burgundians, was also magister militum, the Rhenish Franks obtained the right to settle on the left bank of the Rhine and occupied Cologne, Mainz, and Trier. Later, in 496, they crushed the Alamanni at the Battle of Tolbiac with the help of Clovis. Sigobert the Lame and Cloderic, the last kings of Cologne, died in 508, and the Rhenish Franks chose the Salian Clovis as their successor.
In 406, the Franks were on the front line to defend the Rhine against the invasion of the Vandals. Half a century later, they were allies of the Roman general Flavius Aetius against the Huns at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains, near Troyes.
The territorial expansion of their kingdoms in Gallia Belgica is visible in 450 on the map of the Hunnic Empire. One of the Salian kings, Childeric I, was a stationed Roman general and perhaps governor of the province of Belgica Secunda. Other kings were also established there (such as in Cambrai). Other kingdoms founded by the Rhenish Franks existed on the Rhine, particularly around Cologne.
Having unified the Salian and Rhenish Frankish kingdoms, Clovis I, with the support of the clergy and the great Gallo-Roman families, unified Gaul by destroying the other Germanic kingdoms whose kings, of the Arianism faith, hardly enjoyed the trust of predominantly Catholic populations.
In 486, he seized the cities of Senlis, Beauvais, Soissons, and Paris. His victory at Soissons against Syagrius, considered "king of the Romans", who controlled a Gallo-Roman enclave between the Meuse and the Loire regarded as the last fragment of the Western Roman Empire, allowed Clovis to control all of northern Gaul.
Three powers exercised their dominance south of Clovis's kingdom: the Visigoths in the southwest, the Burgundians in the southeast, and further away in Italy, the Ostrogoths. Clovis forged successive alliances in order to continue expanding his kingdom without having to face a hostile coalition. In this way, he seized the southwest of Gaul by driving out the Visigoths.
Geographically, the kingdom of the Franks then largely overlapped with Gaul. Marriages between Franks and Gallo-Romans, especially within the aristocracy, the enlistment of non-Franks into the army, and the adoption of a common language led to a gradual fusion of the two populations, so that by the 7thth century, the term "Frank" lost its ethnic meaning and came to designate any free man subject to a Merovingian king, regardless of origin.
The sense of belonging to a common and higher entity, the kingdom of the Franks, covering most of Gaul and united by allegiance to the same royal dynasty, remained strong among the Franks and sustained the sense of Frankish unity. Moreover, as early as the second half of the 6th century, the inhabitants of northern Gaul recognized themselves as Franks, testifying to the accomplishment of the gradual fusion between Gallo-Romans and Franks, which would be completed in the 7th century,Pierre Riché, Patrick Périn, Dictionnaire des Francs. Les Mérovingiens et les Carolingiens, éd. Bartillat, 2013, and 259. as well as to the birth, in the words of Ferdinand Lot, of a Gallo-Frankish patriotism.[1]
These kingdoms also knew how to set aside their internal conflicts in order to unite against other kingdoms, such as during the assaults of the Frankish kings against the Burgundians.
Despite the partitions of the unified kingdom by Clovis I, all his descendants reigning over portions of Frankish territory bore the title of King of the Franks,. thereby expressing their awareness of the unity and special identity of the Frankish kingdom.
This unity of the Frankish kingdom was also manifested by the indivisible character of Paris, the seat of the kingdomChristian Settipani, La Préhistoire des Capétiens, ed. Patrick Van Kerrebrouck, 1993, by the will of Clovis I, and later by the proximity of the different capitals in the Paris Basin.
However, this idea of a unified Frankish kingdom despite the partition of territories among the Merovingians is not shared by all historians. Some favor instead the idea of a “Frankish duality,” that is, the division of former Roman Gaul into two competing entities, which some monarchs attempted unsuccessfully to unify: the Salian/Neustrian kingdom and the Rhenish/Austrasian kingdom.
During his 30-year reign Clovis defeated Syagrius in the Franco-Roman War and conquered the Kingdom of Soissons. He defeated the Alemanni at the Battle of Tolbiac in 496 and established Frankish hegemony over them. Clovis defeated the Visigoths at the Battle of Vouillé in 507 and conquered all their territory north of the Pyrenees save Septimania, and he conquered the Bretons (according to Gregory of Tours) and made them vassals of the Franks. He also incorporated the various Roman military settlements ( laeti) scattered over Gaul: the Saxons of Bessin; the Celtic Britons and the Alans of Armorica and the Loire Valley; and the Taifals of Poitou to name a few. By the end of his life, Clovis ruled all of Gaul save the Gothic province of Septimania and the Burgundian kingdom in the southeast.
The date on which Clovis became "king of all Franks" is not known, but it happened sometime after the Battle of Vouillé. In 508 Clovis made Paris his capital, and on Christmas Day 508 he converted to Catholic Church, and some time later he orchestrated the murders of Frankish kings Sigobert and Ragnachar, uniting all Franks under his rule.Gregory of Tours, Book II 38-43. The sole source for this early period is Gregory of Tours, who wrote around the year 590. His chronology for the reigns of the early kings is almost certainly fabricated, often contradicting itself and other sources. Clovis' baptism, traditionally dated to 496, is now believed to have taken place in 508.
The Merovingians were a hereditary monarchy. The Frankish kings adhered to the practice of partible inheritance, dividing their lands among their sons. Even when multiple Merovingian kings ruled, the kingdom—not unlike the late Roman Empire—was conceived of as a single realm ruled collectively by several kings, and a turn of events could result in the reunification of the whole realm under a single king. The Merovingian kings ruled by divine right, and their kingship was symbolised by their long hair and initially by their acclamation, which was carried out by raising the king on a shield in accordance with the ancient Germanic practice of electing a war-leader at an assembly of the warriors.
The fraternal kings showed only intermittent signs of friendship and were often in rivalry. On the death of Chlodomer in 524, Chlothar had Chlodomer's sons murdered in order to take a share of his kingdom, which was, in accordance with custom, divided between the surviving brothers. Theuderic died in 534, but his adult son Theudebert I was capable of defending his inheritance, which formed the largest of the Frankish subkingdoms.
Theudebert was the first Frankish king to formally sever his ties to the Roman emperor in Constantinople by striking gold coins with his own image on them and calling himself magnus rex (great king) because of his supposed suzerainty over peoples as far away as Pannonia. Theudebert interfered in the Gothic War on the side of the Gepids and Lombards against the Ostrogoths, receiving the provinces of Raetia, Noricum, and part of Veneto as spoils. His son and successor Theudebald was unable to retain them, and on Theudebald's death in 555 all the lands passed to Chlothar. With the death of Childebert in 558, the entire Frankish realm was reunited under the rule of Clothar.
The divided kingdom was quickly ruined by fratricidal wars, waged largely over the 568 murder of Galswintha, the wife of Chilperic, allegedly by his mistress (and second wife) Fredegund. Brunhilda, Galswintha's sister and wife of Sigebert, incited her husband to war, and the conflict between the two queens continued to plague relations until the next century. Guntram sought to keep the peace, though he also attempted twice (585 and 589) to conquer Septimania from the Goths, but he was defeated both times.
All the surviving brothers benefited at the death of Charibert in 567, but Chilperic was also able to extend his authority during the period of war by bringing the Bretons to heel again. After Chilperic's death in 584, Guntram had to again force the Bretons to submit. In 587, the Treaty of Andelot—the text of which explicitly refers to the entire Frankish realm as Francia—between Brunhilda and Guntram secured his protection of her young son Childebert II, who had succeeded Sigebert when he was assassinated in 575. Together the territory of Guntram and Childebert was well over three times the size of the realm of Chilperic's successor, Chlothar II.
During their reigns, Theudebert and Theuderic campaigned successfully in Gascony, where they had established the Duchy of Gascony and brought the Basques to submission in 602. This original Gascon conquest included lands south of the Pyrenees, namely Biscay and Gipuzkoa, but these were lost to the Visigoths in 612. On the opposite end of his realm, the Alemanni had defeated Theuderic in a rebellion, and the Franks were losing their hold on the trans-Rheine tribes.
Theudebert and Theuderic began infighting, often incited by Brunhilda who, angered over her expulsion from Theudebert's court, convinced Theuderic to unseat him. In 610 Theudebert extorted the Duchy of Alsace. In 612 Theuderic killed Theudebert, and the entire realm was again ruled by one man. This was short-lived, however, as he died on the eve of preparing an expedition against Chlothar in 613, leaving his illegitimate son Sigebert II as inheritor of the kingdoms of Burgundy and Austrasia in 613.
During the brief reign of Sigebert II, the office of the mayor of the palace, which had for some time been visible in the kingdoms of the Franks, came to the fore in its internal politics, with a faction of nobles coalescing around Warnachar II, Rado, and Pepin of Landen, to give the kingdom over to Chlothar in order to remove Brunhilda, the young king's regent, from power. Warnachar was already the mayor of the palace of Austrasia, while Rado and Pepin were rewarded with mayoral offices after Chlothar's coup succeeded and Brunhilda and the ten-year-old king were killed.
By 623 the Austrasians had begun to clamour for a king of their own, since Chlothar was so often absent from the kingdom and, because of his upbringing and previous rule in the Seine basin, was more or less an outsider there. Chlothar thus granted that his son Dagobert I would be their king, and he was duly acclaimed by the Austrasian warriors. Nonetheless, though Dagobert exercised authority in his realm, Chlothar maintained ultimate control over the whole Frankish kingdom.
During the joint reign of Chlothar and Dagobert, who have been called "the last ruling Merovingians", the Saxons—who had been loosely attached to Francia since the 550s—rebelled under Berthoald, Duke of Saxony, and were defeated and reincorporated into the kingdom by the joint action of father and son. When Chlothar died in 628, Dagobert in accordance with his father's wishes granted a subkingdom to his younger brother Charibert II. This subkingdom, commonly called Aquitaine, was a new creation.
The subkingdom of Aquitaine corresponded to the southern half of the old Roman province of Aquitania, and its capital was at Toulouse. The other cities of his kingdom were Cahors, Agen, PĂ©rigueux, Bordeaux, and Saintes; the Duchy of Vasconia was also part of his allotment.
Charibert campaigned successfully against the Basques, but after his death in 632 they revolted again (632). At the same time the Bretons rose up against Frankish suzerainty. In 635 Dagobert subdued the Basques, while threats of military action induced the Breton leader Saint Judicael to relent, make peace with the Franks, and pay tribute.
In 632 Dagobert had Charibert's infant successor Chilperic assassinated and reunited the entire Frankish realm, though he was forced by the strong Austrasian aristocracy to grant his son Sigebert III to them as a sub-king in 633. This act was precipitated largely by the Austrasians' desire to be self-governing at a time when Neustrians dominated at the royal court. Chlothar had been the king at Paris for decades before becoming the king at Metz as well, and the Merovingian monarchy was ever after him to be a Neustrian monarchy first and foremost. Indeed, it is in the 640s that "Neustria" first appears in writing, its late appearance relative to "Austrasia" probably because Neustrians (who formed the bulk of the authors of the time) called their region simply "Francia". Burgundia also defined itself in opposition to Neustria at about this time; however, it was the Austrasians who had been seen as a distinct people within the realm since the time of Gregory of Tours, who were to make the most strident moves for independence.
Sigebert was dominated during his minority by Mayor of the Palace Grimoald the Elder, who convinced the childless king to adopt his own Merovingian-named son Childebert as his son and heir. After Dagobert's death in 639 Radulf, Duke of Thuringia, rebelled and tried to make himself king. In 640 he defeated Sigebert in what was a serious reversal for the ruling dynasty. Sigebert lost the support of many magnates while on campaign, and the weakness of the monarchic institutions by that time are evident in his inability to effectively make war without the support of the magnates; in fact, he could not even provide his own bodyguard without the loyal aid of mayors of the palace Grimoald and Adalgisel. Sigebert is often regarded as the first roi fainéant: "do-nothing king".
Clovis II, Dagobert's successor in Neustria and Burgundy, which were thereafter attached yet ruled separately, was a minor for almost the whole of his reign. He was dominated by his mother Nanthild and Mayor of the Palace Erchinoald. Erchinoald's successor Ebroin dominated the kingdom for the next 15 years of near-constant civil war. On his death in 656 Sigbert's son was shipped off to Ireland, while Grimoald's son Childebert reigned in Austrasia. Ebroin eventually reunited the entire Frankish kingdom for Clovis's successor Chlothar III by killing Grimoald and removing Childebert in 661. However, the Austrasians demanded a king of their own again, and Chlothar installed his younger brother Childeric II. During Chlothar's reign, the Franks had made an attack on northwestern Italy, but were driven off by Grimoald, King of the Lombards, near Rivoli.
In 673 Chlothar III died, and some Neustrian and Burgundian magnates invited Childeric to become king of the whole realm, but he upset some Neustrian magnates and was assassinated n 675. The reign of Theuderic III was to prove the end of the Merovingian dynasty's power. Theuderic III succeeded his brother Chlothar III in Neustria in 673, but Childeric II of Austrasia displaced him soon thereafter—until he died in 675, and Theuderic III retook his throne. When Dagobert II died in 679, Theuderic received Austrasia as well and became king of the whole Frankish realm.
During the period of confusion in the 670s and 680s, attempts had been made to re-assert Frankish suzerainty over the Frisians but to no avail. In 689 Pepin launched a campaign of conquest in West Frisia and defeated King Radbod near Dorestad, an important trading centre. All the land between the Scheldt and the Vlie was incorporated into Francia. Then, circa 690, Pepin attacked central Frisia and took Utrecht. In 695 Pepin could even sponsor the foundation of the Archdiocese of Utrecht and the beginning of the conversion of the Frisians under Willibrord. However, East Frisia remained outside of Frankish suzerainty.
Having achieved great successes against the Frisians, Pepin turned towards the Alemanni. In 709 he launched a war against Willehari, duke of the Ortenau, probably in an effort to force the succession of the young sons of the deceased Gotfrid on the ducal throne. This outside interference led to another war in 712, and the Alemanni were for the time being subject to Francia. However, in southern Gaul, which was not under Arnulfing influence, the regions were pulling away from the royal court under leaders such as Savaric of Auxerre, Antenor of Provence, and Odo of Aquitaine. The reigns of Clovis IV and Childebert III from 691 until 711 have all the hallmarks of those of rois fainéants, though Childebert made some royal judgements against of the Arnulfings.
In 717 Charles installed Chlothar IV in opposition to King Chilperic II, whose rule was thereby restricted to Neustria. This marked the first time since 679 that the kingdom was divided. Following Chlothar's death in 718, the kingdom was reunited under Chilperic II. In 718 at the Battle of Soissons, Charles defeated his rivals and forced them into hiding. There were no more active Merovingian kings after that point, and Charles and his Carolingian heirs ruled the Franks.
After 718 Charles embarked on a series of wars intended to strengthen the Franks' hegemony in western Europe. In 718 he defeated the rebellious Saxons, in 719 he overran West Frisia, in 723 he suppressed the Saxons again, and in 724 he defeated Ragenfrid and the rebellious Neustrians, ending the civil war phase of his rule. In 720 Chilperic II died, and Theuderic IV was appointed king, but he was a puppet king. In 724 Charles forced his choice of Hugbert for the ducal succession upon the Bavarians and forced the Alemanni to assist him in his campaigns in Bavaria (725 and 726), where laws were promulgated in Theuderic IV's name. In 730 Alemannia was subjugated, and Duke Lanfredus was killed. In 734 Charles fought against East Frisia and finally subdued it.
In the 730s the Umayyad conquerors of Spain, who had also subjugated Septimania, began advancing northwards into central Francia and the Loire Valley. Around 736 Duke Maurontus of Provence called in the Umayyads to aid him in resisting the expanding influence of the Carolingians. However, Charles invaded the RhĂ´ne Valley with his brother Childebrand I and a Lombard army and devastated the region. It was because of the alliance against the Arabs that Charles was unable to support Pope Gregory III against the Lombards.
In 732 or 737—modern scholars have debated over the date—Charles marched against an Arab army between Poitiers and Tours and defeated it in a watershed battle that turned back the tide of the Arab advance north of the Pyrenees. But Charles' real interests lay in the northeast, primarily with the Saxons, from whom he had to extort the tribute which for centuries they had paid to the Merovingians.
Shortly before his death in October 741, Charles divided the realm as if he were king between his two sons by his first wife, marginalising his younger son Grifo, who did receive a small portion (it is unknown exactly what). Though there had been no king since Theuderic's death in 737, Charles's sons Pepin the Short and Carloman were still only mayors of the palaces. The Carolingians had assumed the regal status and practice, though not the regal title, of the Merovingians. The division of the kingdom gave Austrasia, Alemannia, and Thuringia to Carloman; and Neustria, Provence, and Burgundy to Pepin. It is indicative of the de facto autonomy of the duchies of Aquitaine (under Hunald I) and Bavaria (under Odilo) that they were not included in the division of the regnum.
After Charles Martel was buried in the Abbey of Saint-Denis alongside the Merovingian kings, conflict immediately erupted between Pepin and Carloman on one side and Grifo on the other. Though Carloman captured and imprisoned Grifo, it may have been enmity between the elder brothers that caused Pepin to release Grifo while Carloman was on a pilgrimage to Rome. Perhaps in an effort to neutralise his brother's ambitions, Carloman initiated the appointment of a new king, Childeric III, drawn from a monastery, in 743. Others have suggested that perhaps the position of the two brothers was weak or challenged, or perhaps there Carloman was merely acting for a loyalist or legitimist party in the kingdom.
In 743 Pepin campaigned against Odilo and forced him to submit to Frankish suzerainty; Carloman campaigned against the Saxons; and the two together defeated a rebellion led by Hunoald at the head of the Basques and another led by Alemanni. In 746, however, the Frankish armies were still, as Carloman was preparing to retire from politics and enter the monastery of Monte Soratte. Pepin's position was further stabilised and the path was laid for his assumption of the crown in 751.
Pepin solidified his position in 754 by entering into an alliance with Pope Stephen II, who presented the king of the Franks a copy of the forged "Donation of Constantine" at Paris, and in a magnificent ceremony at Saint-Denis Stephen anointed the king and his family and declared him patricius Romanorum ("protector of the Romans"). The following year Pepin fulfilled his promise to the pope and returned the Exarchate of Ravenna to the papacy, which had recently fallen to the Lombards. Pepin donated the conquered areas around Rome to the pope, laying the foundation for the Papal States in the "Donation of Pepin" which he laid on Saint Peter's tomb. The papacy had good cause to expect that the remade Frankish monarchy would provide a deferential power base ( potestas) in the creation of a new world order, centred on the pope.
Upon Pepin's death in 768, his sons Charles and Carloman I once again divided the kingdom between themselves. However, Carloman withdrew to a monastery and died shortly thereafter, leaving sole rule to his brother, who would later become known as Charlemagne or Charles the Great, a powerful, intelligent, and modestly literate figure who became a legend for the later history of both France and Germany. Charlemagne restored an equal balance between emperor and pope.
Charles conquered the Lombards and thus included northern Italy in his sphere of influence. He renewed the Vatican donation and the promise to the papacy of continued Frankish protection. In 788 Tassilo III, Duke of Bavaria, rebelled against Charles. Crushing the rebellion incorporated Bavaria into Charles's kingdom. This added to the royal fisc and drastically reduced the power and influence of the Agilolfings (Tassilo's family), another leading family among the Franks and potential rivals. Charles continued to expand the kingdom even farther southeast, into today's Austria and parts of Croatia. He thus created a realm that reached from the Pyrenees in the southwest including an area in northern Spain ( Spanish March), over almost all of France (except Brittany, which the Franks never conquered), eastwards to most Germany, including northern Italy and Austria. In the hierarchy of the church, bishops and abbots looked to the patronage of the king's palace, where the sources of patronage and security lay. Charles had fully emerged as the leader of Western Christendom, and his patronage of monastic centres of learning gave rise to the "Carolingian Renaissance" of literate culture. Charles also created a large palace at Aachen, as well as a series of roads and a canal.
On Christmas Day 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charles as "Emperor of the Romans" in Rome in a ceremony presented as a surprise (Charlemagne did not wish to be indebted to the bishop of Rome), a further papal move in the series of symbolic gestures that had been defining the mutual roles of papal auctoritas and imperial potestas. Though Charlemagne preferred the title "Emperor, king of the Franks and Lombards", the ceremony formally acknowledged the ruler of the Franks as the Roman Emperor, triggering disputes with the Byzantine Empire, which had maintained the title since the division of the Roman Empire into East and West. The pope's right to proclaim successors was based on the Donation of Constantine. After an initial protest at the usurpation, the Byzantine Emperor Michael I Rangabe acknowledged in 812 Charlemagne as co-emperor, according to some. According to others, Michael reopened negotiations with the Franks in 812 and recognized Charlemagne as basileus (emperor) but not as emperor of the Romans. The coronation gave permanent legitimacy to Carolingian primacy among the Franks.
In 870 the Treaty of Meerssen partitioned Lotharingia. In 884 Charles the Fat (son of Louis the German) reunited most of the Carolingian Empire, aside from Burgundy. In 887 his nephew Arnulf of Carinthia revolted and assumed the title as King of the East Franks. Charles died in January 888, and Odo, Count of Paris, was chosen to rule in the west. At this point, West Francia was composed of Neustria in the west and in the east by Francia proper, the region between the Meuse and the Seine. The Carolingians were restored ten years later in West Francia and ruled until 987, when the last Frankish King Louis V died.
West Francia was divided into the following great fiefs: Aquitaine, Brittany, Burgundy, Catalonia, Flanders, Gascony, Septimania, Paris & Blois, and Toulouse. Middle Francia was split on the death of Lothair II in 869 into those of Lotharingia, Provence (with Burgundy divided between it and Lotharingia), and north Italy. East Francia was divided into four duchies: Swabia (Alamannia), Franconia, Saxony and Bavaria; to which after the death of Lothair II were added the eastern parts of Lotharingia. Otto I was crowned in 962, marking the beginning of the Holy Roman Empire.
It was also under Frankish hegemony that the other Germanic societies east of the Rhine began to codify their tribal law, in such compilations as the Lex Alamannorum and Lex Baiuvariorum for the Alemanni and Baiuvarii respectively. Throughout the Frankish kingdoms there continued to be Gallo-Romans subject to Roman law and clergy subject to canon law. After the Frankish conquest of Septimania and Catalonia, those regions which had formerly been under Gothic control continued to utilise the Lex Visigothorum.
During the early period, Frankish law was preserved by the rachimburgs, officials trained to remember it and pass it on. The Merovingians adopted the capitulary as a tool for the promulgation and preservation of royal ordinances. Its usage was to continue under the Carolingians and even the later Spoletan emperors Guy and Lambert under a programme of renovation regni Francorum ("renewal of the Frankish kingdom").
The last Merovingian capitulary was one of the most significant: the Edict of Paris issued by Chlothar II in 614 in the presence of his magnates had been likened to a Frankish Magna Carta entrenching the rights of the nobility, but in actuality it sought to remove corruption from the judiciary and protect local and regional interests. Even after the last Merovingian capitulary, kings of the dynasty continued to independently exercise some legal powers. Childebert III even found cases against the powerful Arnulfings and became renowned among the people for his justness. But law in Francia was to experience a renaissance under the Carolingians.
Among the legal reforms adopted by Charlemagne were the codifications of traditional law mentioned above. He also sought to place checks on the power of local and regional judiciaries by the method of appointing missi dominici in pairs to oversee specific regions for short periods of time. Usually missi were selected from outside their respective regions in order to prevent conflicts of interest. A capitulary of 802 gives insight into their duties. They were to execute justice, enforce respect for the royal rights, control the administration of the and (who were royal appointees), receive the oath of allegiance, and supervise the clergy.
In the 7th century, the territory of the Frankish realm was (re-)Christianized with the help of Irish and Scottish missionaries. The result was the establishment of numerous monasteries, which would become the nucleus of Old High German literacy in the Carolingian Empire. Irish missionary Columbanus was active in Frankish lands from 590, establishing monasteries until his death at Bobbio in 615. He arrived on the continent with 12 companions and founded Annegray, Luxeuil, and Fontaines in France and Bobbio in Italy. During the 7th century. The disciples of Columbanus and other Scottish and Irish missionaries founded several monasteries or schottenklöster. The Irish influence in these monasteries is reflected in the adoption of Insular art style in book production, visible in 8th-century works such as the Gelasian Sacramentary. The Insular script influence on the uncial script of the later Merovingian period eventually gave way to the development of the Carolingian minuscule in the 9th century.
By the end of the 8th century, under the influence of some earlier Visigothic practices, various Church leaders in Francia developed an erroneous notion that the Filioque clause was an authentic part of the original Nicene Creed, and those views were further expanded by the Libri Carolini, thus provoking the Roman popes of that time (Hadrian I and Leo III) to intervene against the Filioque interpolation but with no result, and thus the interpolated Creed became common throughout the Frankish realms.
The denarius subsequently appeared in Italy issued in the name of Carolingian monarchs after 794, later by so-called "native" kings in the tenth century, and later still by the German emperors from Otto I (962). Finally, denarii were issued in Rome in the names of pope and emperor from Leo III and Charlemagne onwards to the late 10th century.
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